In controlled human trials, doses between 6mg and 12mg per day have reduced markers of oxidative stress, such as malondialdehyde (MDA), and increased antioxidant enzyme activity, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx).22 A 2022 meta-analysis combining results from 12 clinical studies also found small but significant reductions in C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 both indicators of systemic inflammation.23 Researchers think this might be due to astaxanthins ability to interact with key inflammatory signaling pathways like NF-B and Nrf2, which help regulate the bodys balance between inflammation and antioxidant defenses.24 25 These effects appear modest but consistent across studies, though its not yet clear how much they translate into real-world health outcomes
Abbreviations ATF4: Activating transcription factor 4 m: Mitochondrial membrane potential DCFH-DA: 2,7-dichlorofluorescin diacetate ECL: Enhanced chemiluminescence ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ESI: Electrospray ionization FC: Fold change Fe: Ferrous iron Fer-1: Ferrostatin-1 GBM: Glioblastoma multiforme GSH: Glutathione HMDB: Human metabolome database HRP: Horseradish peroxidase IC50: Half-maximal inhibitory concentration KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes K: Potassium ion LC-MS/MS: Liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry LDH: Lactate dehydrogenase Lip-1: Liproxstatin-1 MDA: Malondialdehyde Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2related factor 2 OH: Hydroxyl radicals PBS: Phosphate-buffered saline PCA: Principal component analysis PLS-DA: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis PVDF: Polyvinylidene difluoride QTOF: Quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer Rb: Rubidium ion RbCl: Rubidium chloride RCD: Regulated cell death RIPA: Radioimmunoprecipitation assay ROS: Reactive oxygen species RT: Retention time SDS-PAGE: Sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis TCA: Tricarboxylic acid TEM: Transmission electron microscopy TMZ: Temozolomide UPLC: Ultra-performance liquid chromatography References Louis DN, Perry A, Wesseling P, Brat DJ, Cree IA, Figarella-Branger D, et al
Supports healthy levels of glutathione
Hedgehog signalling activity of Smoothened requires phosphorylation by protein kinase A and casein kinase I
doi: 10.1093/jxb/erab040
[175] Acetaminophen and paracetamol are the identical chemical drug compound
